Uighurs
Uighurs are the fifth largest nation in Kazakhstan. In the early 2014, the number of Kazakhstani Uighurs was 246,777 (1.44% of the country's population).
Uighurs is one of the most ancient Turkic-speaking peoples. They were engaged not only in the cultivation of grain and melons, but also in smithery and jewelry-making. They were also called "taranchi" since their skills to cultivate land were famous.
Together with the Dungans, the Uighurs first settled in the territory of Kazakhstan in the 1860s and 1880s, after the suppression of the Uighur rebellion in China. Around the same time, some of the Kazakhs of the Semirechye migrated to the Uighur lands of Eastern Turkestan after their uprising had been suppressed in 1916.
Mass migration of Uighurs in the Semirechye
In the middle of the XVIII century, the Chinese army defeated Dzungaria, then conquered East Turkestan, and reached Kuldja. The Chinese army almost completely exterminated the Djungar, sparing only a small number of the Dungan Muslims. The Chinese realized that they would not be able to provide their army with food, and, therefore, all Uighurs were forcibly evicted from the cities of Kashkar, Aksu, Turfan, Zharkent. The Uighurs together with the Dungans in 1864 raised an uprising and gained victory. The Uighur Sultanate of Taranchi was founded. This Sultanate began to emerge as power in the Semirechye. To put an end to this, the Governor-General of the Semirechye region, G. Kolpakovsky, in 1871, went on a military campaign against Kuldza and seized it. Thus, Kuldza entered the Semirechye as an uyezd. When the leaders of China and Russia met in St. Petersburg in 1881, and according to the negotiated agreement, Kuldza again was to be ceded to China. The agreement had a special clause that the people had to decide for themselves which country they want to belong to.
Under the treaty of 1881, Uighurs and Dungans voluntarily moved to the Semirechye. They settled in the Zharkent district on the banks of the Osek and Charyn rivers, in the Vernensky district - in the villages of Chilik, Talgar. Some families moved to the city of Verny. Their descendants still live in these settlements. The settlers made up the five volosts - Zharkent, Ketmen, Aksu-Charyn (now Almaty oblast, Uighur district), Malybaevskaya and Karasu (now Enbekshikazakhsky district).
According to the land use law system established in 1882 by the Semirechye regional government, 10 dessiatinas of land were carved out for each male migrant. However, due to the fact that in the area all the best lands had been granted to the Cossacks, the Uighurs and Dungans got only 4-5 acres of the land. And these lands were not suitable for farming. And the Uighurs had to pay taxes starting from 1892. The Uighurs and Dungans, who lived in wintering outlands and in towns, organized communities with their administration and mosque. Although the land was distributed among individual farms, formally it was in common use. The rule of allocating a plot of land to each family according to the number of males was a common practice. However, very often, bais and well-to-do proprietors had unborn babies registered as males. Hence, bais got hold of the best lands adjoining rivers and canals. Barren lands, those remote from the waterways were allotted to the poor. The poor farmers would complain to the authorities about the outrage of the rich, but no one would attend to their pleas and tried to help.
The impoverished settlers hardly could on their own, cultivate such plots. Then the rich rented their plots, and the lawful plot-owners were employed as farmhands. So the land gradually passed into the hands of the leaseholders. The Uighurs and Dungans deprived of their land flowed to towns to find work.
Number of Uighurs
In the Soviet time, the number of Uighurs in the country was steadily on the increase. In the time of the open borders regimes between the USSR and the PRC in the 1960s and 1970s, two new waves of Uighur settlers arrived in the Kazakh SSR, and settled mainly in the villages and district centers of the Almaty and Taldykurgan regions. The number of Uighurs in the Republic grew rapidly. According to the 1989 census, 180 thousand Uighurs resided in the Republic (1.1% of the Republic's population). The Uighurs accounted for 7.8% of the population of the Almaty region in its present borders and 3.5% of the population of Almaty. According to the 1999 census, their number reached 210 thousand (1.4% of the population), while in the Uighur district of Almaty region the majority of the population (56%) were Uighurs. In the Almaty region, the share of Uighurs rose to 9%, in Alma-Ata reached 5.8%.
The census of Kazakhstan in 2009 had on 01.01.2010 record 227,000 Uighurs, which is 1.39% of the population of the whole country. A rather high natural increase is maintained, the rural population prevails, although the migration of Uighurs to the regional towns has risen.
The Uighurs of Kazakhstan, as a rule, are trilingual, they are proficient in Russian and Kazakh languages. Since the Soviet time in the Republic there has been a network of Uighur schools. In 2012, 14 schools of the Republic were exclusively Uighur-speaking. In addition, 4076 Uighur children who had their training in other languages rather than Uighur, studied the Uighur language either as an optional subject or as a subject under educational programs. The Uyghur newspaper “Uyur Avazi” is in a current publication.
Results of survey all over Kazakhstan
The survey under the international project showed that only few have reliable information about their family history, that is, they are hardly aware of where and when their ancestors were settled in Kazakhstan. Therefore, the majority of respondents consider themselves to be indigenous residents of Kazakhstan. Out of 187 people of the Uighur respondents while answering the question "Was your family deported to Kazakhstan?" 100 (53.4%) said - no, 23 (12.5%) - yes, 64 (34.2%) produced no answer, so, no data available.
The sovereignty of Kazakhstan led to a dramatic change in the ethno-demographic situation in the country. Migration of the population from Kazakhstan to Russia and European countries reduced the country's population by 9.1%. Over the years of sovereignty, the absolute number of the peoples of Kazakhstan has noticeably declined. Only Uzbeks and Uighurs have retained their share in the population.
However, only Uzbeks and Uighurs increased their numbers due to natural population growth, while all other peoples grew in numbers mainly due to migration growth. The distribution of the peoples of Kazakhstan on a vast territory urging an interpersonal communication, and interaction with representatives of other cultures and religions, has enriched the mechanisms of poly-ethnic communication, creating new mutually beneficial forms of intercultural and interethnic communication. All this was an important prerequisite for the modern Kazakhstani culture as becoming one of the most effective in terms of ensuring the effective interpersonal and interethnic interaction and communication between people.
The international research project "Interaction of the Turkic languages and cultures in post-Soviet Kazakhstan" assisted by the Uighur Ethno-Cultural Associations, organized meetings with some representatives of the Uighur ethnos and carried out the survey. All the respondents are aware of the importance of national identity, that is, the importance of respecting national traditions, religion and cuisine. Almost all people respondents believe that whether an ethnic group live in the same territory or not, does not matter. The study was carried out by using interviewing, filling out and analyzing questionnaires.
Ethnicity: 173 people interviewees - Uighur respondents.
Ethnic self-identity: Most of the representatives of the Uighur ethnos (out of 187 respondents) identify themselves as Uighurs as to the passport nationality identification, 178 of them (94.7%) are Uighurs; 3 (1.6%) are registered as Uzbeks; 6 (3.2%) - no data available.
As to marriage, both male and female Uighurs marry predominantly their ethnic counterparts, yet interethnic cases also an occurrence. Survey analysis shows the following figures:
Father's nationality: 177 people (94.7%) - Uighurs; 3 (1.6%) are Uzbeks; 1 (0.5%) is another nationality, and in 6 (3.2%) no data available. As the paternal side survey suggests, an international representation among Uighurs is only accidental, merely 2 nationalities, not to say of the Uighurs.
As to the national identity, the mothers of the respondents are of five nationalities: 61 people (32.6%) - Uighurs; 34 (18.2%) are Kazakhs; 13 (7%) are Uzbeks; 6 (3.2%) are Russians; 1 (0.5%) - another nationality; 53 (28.3%) - no data available.
Thus, in the Uighur mixed families, the father dominates the family, so the orientation is on the father. In ethnic self-identification, the dominant marker, regardless of ethnos, is the paternal line (Uighur), the child in the family is identified with the father's ethnos. Hence it can be stated that at present in Kazakhstan, the shaping of awareness, culture, language in Uighurs is more influenced by the father rather than the mother.
In addition, in mixed families, male Uighurs, as well as women, can marry representatives of other ethnic groups. At the same time, male Uighurs prefer to marry Uighurs in most cases, and female Uighurs prefer to marry Uighur, thus preserving ethnic culture, traditions, mentality.
In the second generation, when one of the spouses was not of Uighur nationality, the following data were found out: 63 (37.7%) children were recorded as Uighurs;
Kazakhs - 7 children (3.7%),
Uzbeks - 6 children (3.2%),
Turkish 1 child (0.6%) and 62 (33.2%) - there is no data.
Most of all interviewees in the survey believe it is important to know their native language, but regret that with the passing away of the older generation, the knowledge of the native language is on the decline. Only the older generation knows the mother tongue very well, middle-aged generation has a fair command of spoken language; unfortunately, the younger generation can employ combination of languages, such as Russian and Uighur, Kazakh, Russian and Uighur, Russian and Kazakh languages. The survey identifies the following:
The survey data on the language spoken in the family with school age children:
27 (14.4%) - only in the Uighur language;
43 (23%) - only in Russian;
43 (23%) - in Russian and Uighur language;
2 (1.1%) - in Russian and Uzbek;
1 (0.5%) - in Russian and Turkish;
4 (2.1%) - in the Kazakh and Uighur languages;
22 (11.8%) - in the Kazakh, Russian and Uighur languages;
13 (7%) - in Kazakh and Russian;
14 (7.5%) - only in the Kazakh language,
9 (4.8%) - no data available.
The survey statistics on the language spoken in the family among adults:
36 (19.3%) - only in the Uighur language;
38 (20.3%) - only in Russian;
46 (24.6%) - in Russian and Uighur language;
1 (0.5%) - in Russian and Turkish;
2 (1.1%) - in Russian and Uzbek;
12 (6.4%) - in the Kazakh language;
12 (6.4%) - in the Kazakh and Uighur languages;
20 (10.7%) - in the Kazakh, Russian and Uighur languages;
10 (5.3%) - in Kazakh and Russian;
1 (0.5%) - only in Uzbek,
3 (1.6%) - no data available.
The survey statistics on language spoken by Uighurs in communicating with people of other nationalities:
75 (40.1%) - only in Russian;
69 (36.9%) - in Kazakh and Russian;
3 (1.6%) - in Russian and Uzbek;
5 (2.7%) - in the Kazakh, Russian and Uighur languages;
6 (3.2%) - only in Kazakh, 1 (0.5%) in Kazakh and Uighur and Kazakh and Uzbek;
20 (10.7%) - no data available.
The analysis of the language selection showed that "linguistic factor" for Uighurs identifies the Russian language as prevailing for communicating with other nationalities. Uighurs speak the state language perfectly, or are fluent enough, or they can speak and understand spoken Kazakh.
Most of the respondents do not share the facts of infringement of their rights on the basis of language. It can be accounted for that the language, sometimes called New Uighur, refers to the Turkic family of languages. A number of problems of the Uighur diaspora refer to education in the Uighur language and the preservation of the cultural heritage:
1) official permission to pupils of Uighur schools to take UNT in district schools with the right to take it in Kazakh/Russian;
2) a shortage of textbooks for Uighur schools;
3) closing of the teacher training department for Uighur schools in KazNPU named after Abay; Today, primary school teachers for Uighur schools are only trained in a college in Jarkent;
4) a sharp decline in the representation of Uighurs in government and local government;
In reference to the foregoing, the survey shows the following statistical data:
53 people (28.2%) speak freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian;
In public transport, at a doctor's, in a notary office they use:
77 people (41.2%) - Russian;
74 people (39.6%) - Kazakh and Russian;
20 people (10.7%) - the Kazakh language.
45 people (24.1%) - read freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian languages;
32 people (17.1%) - write freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian;
36 people (19.3%) - understand freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian languages;
33 people (17.6%) read books, newspapers, magazines and ads freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian languages (whereas they prefer 82 (43.9%) in Russian,
27 (11.2%) in Kazakh and Russian, 18 (9.6%) in Russian and Uighur);
27 people (14.4%) - they are more likely to listen to lectures, talks, reports, TV shows and radio programs in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian languages
28 people (15%) - they can listen to concerts, watch performances in Uzbek, Kazakh and Russian languages (whereas they prefer 73 (39%) in Russian, 21 (11.2%) in Kazakh and Russian, 24 12.8%) in Russian and Uighur);
28 people (15%) answered that they did not need the films in Kazakh and Russian to be interpreted in their native language, and 7 people (3.7%) answered yes.
But despite the inadequate knowledge of the native language, all respondents consider themselves to be full-fledged representatives of their nationality. In respect to their personal identification, the representatives of the Uighur ethnos define themselves as the community with their specific ethnic identity and religion (157 of the respondents (83.9%) admit they are Muslims). The ancestors of the Uighurs were adherents of shamanism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and Buddhism. From the Х to the ХVІ centuries Islam gradually superseded these beliefs. With the early Islam gaining ground, the Uighurs professed Sufism, today most of the population are Sunnis.
The 30 respondents from the Uighurs being asked of what their main concerns in respect to interethnic relations were, answered as follows:
- sometimes clashes with Kazakhs, probably, because of chauvinism - 4 people (13.3%);
- 1 person (3.3%) – a clash with Azerbaijanis;
- I can hardly answer the question - 2 people (6.6%).
- No answer, whatever - 23 people (76.6%);
Thus, the Kazakhstani Uighurs predominantly believe that there is no systemic tension between Kazakhs and other ethnic groups residing in Kazakhstan.
The Uighurs have for a long time been farming on the irrigated lands. Also, they bred and traded in livestock. They did not specialize in cattle breeding, and used livestock mainly as draught power in their households. They bred horses, cows, sometimes - sheep and goats. The staple life-sustaining production for the Uighurs was grain farming.
Wheat was mostly preferred to be cultivated among other cereals, followed by barley, millet, oats, rice; crops for the production of vegetable oils: mustard, poppy, flax. Uighurs were engaged in the cultivation of fruit crops: vegetables, cucumbers, potatoes, peas, onions, garlic, carrots, red pepper and various greens. They also cultivated silkworm cocoons, cotton, supplied the population with vegetable oil. The Dungans grew poppies to produce opium for medicinal purposes. They also grew tobacco, successfully trading it and its derivatives, in particular, nasybai. Today, the occupational patterns of Uighurs are changed. The survey data show that:
20 people (10.8%) are teachers;
20 people (10.7%) are workers;
18 people (9.6%) - employees in the service sector;
20 people (10.7%) are civil servants;
10 people (5.3%) are unemployed;
2 people (0.5%) are entrepreneurs;
30 (17.6%) other occupations (restaurant business, trade, etc.).
78.9% respondents (45 people) as to oral folklore admitted they knew and sometimes used proverbs and sayings. Older people (50 years old) remember the fairy tales and myths that their grandmothers told them (Alpamish, Takhir wa Zukhra, Farhad wa Shirin, Ahmadjan Kasimi, Silly Padishah, Yalmauz, Malik and Roykhon, Chura Botir, Bilal-Nazim, Nazuzum, Perizat, Rabia-Saydan, Leyli-Majnun, Sadir Palvan, Gani Batur, Yusuf wa Zuleikho, legends about Nasreddin Apendi, poems, etc.), and 21.1% (12 respondents) of the younger generation answered that they did not know. People of the middle-age generation, whose childhood and youth fell to the Soviet period – the 70-90-ies, know Kazakh literature poorly; the representatives of the younger generation are more or less familiar with the Kazakh literature. At present, the respondents with higher education degrees go back to the knowledge of oral folk art, as well as native literature through the access to new technologies (the Internet), as well as participating in activities held in ethno-cultural national centers.
The quality of the textbooks in Kazakh, Russian and English languages was evaluated only by the respondents with higher education degrees, mostly textbooks in Kazakh and Russian were rated as "satisfactory". The quality of the English textbooks was rated as "good".
The results of the survey in the city of Taraz, Zhambyl region (sporadic residence areas of Uighurs)
Interviewing the representatives of the Uygur ethnos in Taraz city of Zhambyl region in August 2015 was also carried out.
According to the Mahmut Kashgari Ethno-Cultural Association of Uighurs of the Zhambyl Region, it is (the area) is populated by 3,000 ethnic Uighurs, most of whom, 1500 people, live in Chu, about 1,000 residents live in Taraz, the rest are distributed in the districts of the region. According to the Chairman of the Association, Mahabat Abdrakhmanovna Turdiyeva, the number does not include Uighurs (mostly women) who are in mixed marriages, and people who due to some reasons have changed their nationality. The average age of representatives of the Uighur ethnos in the Zhambyl region is approximately 40-50 years, the elderly people number only some 200 people.
With the assistance of the Uighur Ethno-Cultural Association, some meetings were held with representatives of the Uighur ethnos to conduct interviews. Twenty interviews were organized. Among the respondents there were representatives with postgraduate education (candidates of sciences) - 2 people, with a higher education degree - 9, and with secondary and secondary special degrees- 9 people. The age of the respondents: the older generation (70 years and above) -1 person (74 years), the middle age generation (40-60 years, age 46 years) - 13 people, the younger generation (20-40, 5) - 6 people. One interview took about 40 minutes – 60 minutes. All respondents are urban or suburban residents (Dunganovka village). The analysis of the interviews showed that everyone knows the spoken native language (18 people - 90%), some are fluent in the Kazakh language (15 people - 75%), and all are fluent in Russian.
The interviewees’ parents were forced to settle in Kazakhstan. Only one respondent (a qualified doctor, has a postgraduate education) was deported in the early 20th century, according to him not his, but his grandfather was, and migration was effected by a search of a better life, after some clashes between the Uighurs and the Chinese. According to the respondents, their families were not deported to Kazakhstan. The resettlement occurred mainly in the late 50's and early 60's due to the famine in China, the so-called "black years". The resettlement occurred more often from Kashkar, less often from Suidun and Artush. Initially, the resettlement occurred in the Taldykurgan region (now Almaty), Panfilov district (Avat village, Zharkent village, Shonzha village).
Representatives of the Uighur ethnos, who are members of the Ethno-Cultural Association, support national traditions, honor their native language, specimens of folk art in their native language. In addition, the interviews showed that the respondents are grateful to live in Kazakhstan, have close ties, sometimes relations, with representatives of other ethnic groups living in Kazakhstan. Almost all respondents believe that marriage with representatives of another religion is unacceptable. Only one respondent has a spouse - Ukrainian.
All respondents consider themselves to be indigenous residents of Kazakhstan, they generally consider it important to know their native language, but regretfully admit that with the departure of the older generation, the knowledge of the native language is on the decline. Only the older generation knows the mother tongue well, a good spoken language is used by middle age generation; unfortunately, the younger generation does not use the Uighur language. But despite the inadequate mastery of the native language, everyone considers himself\herself to be a full-fledged representative of his/her nationality. All without exception, respondents are aware of the importance of national identity, that is, the importance of respecting national traditions, religion and cuisine. Almost all people consider it not that important for an ethnic group to live in the same territory.
Today, there are no Uighur schools in the city of Taraz, the Uighur language as a subject in educational institutions is not on the curricula. Once, the Uighur language was taught as an optional at the Uighur Ethno-Cultural Association of the Zhambyl Region, but at present, the elective course does not operate due to the lack of material incentives for teachers. All respondents understand that the use and study of the mother tongue in nurseries and kindergartens is necessary, but they also realize that because of the small number of representatives of the Uighur ethnos in the city of Taraz, there is no such possibility. It is believed that it is now better to teach children in Kazakh, Russian, and if possible, in English. As to the quality of textbooks in the native language, the respondents could not express their opinion because of unavailability and not using of such. Only the respondents with higher education degrees evaluated the quality of the textbooks in Kazakh, Russian and English languages, mostly textbooks on Kazakh and Russian were rated as "satisfactory". The quality of the English textbooks was rated as "good". Everybody knows and refers to the fact that there are Uighur schools in Almaty, Almaty broadcasts in Uighur language, and there are also radio broadcasts. Of all the respondents, only one person (Ph.D., teacher) uses the Internet, writes SMS in his native language, knows Uighur poets and writers, the titles and contents of their works. During the survey, 10% of the respondents expressed the desire to further develop the national culture and spoke about the necessity to restart broadcasting channel (originally known as Alatau) in the Uighur language.
The analysis of the interviews showed that the representatives of the Uighur ethnos do not have conflicts with representatives of other ethnic groups. All respondents consider Kazakhstan their homeland; they think that the situation has improved considerably since the times of the USSR. In Kazakhstan their rights are not violated and there are all opportunities for observing national traditions, and not knowing the Kazakh language does not affect career growth. The ANC’s role in preserving the national identity is important.
The main problem in developing of the present study is some distrust of the respondents to the study and a small number of representatives of the Uighur ethnos living in Taraz and Zhambyl Oblast.
To the survey’s final question: “What do you want to add to what you have stated? Perhaps, do you have any wishes regarding the publication of books and newspapers in your native language, cultural and educational work and schooling? "Some respondents (out of 16 total) wrote the following:
- At the moment - it is necessary to translate the best works into Russian and to advertise them and the authors. Reduce the number of Russian channels, and increase entertainment and cognitive programs in Russian, propagandizing Kazakhstanis, etc. - 1 person (6.2%);
- With regard to the publication of books and newspapers, there are already such books (Uigur Avazi, Irada magazine, Uygur Radio, etc.), I would like to see more Uygur concerts and events on local channels - 1 person (6.2%).
- Some more interest clubs to study the native language - 1 person (6.2%).
- I would like more concerts and centers to learn more about the language, culture and way of life of our people - 1 person (6.2%).
- I would like to watch the programs in my native language - 1 person (6.2%).
- To make the Turks become one nation - 2 people (12.5%).
- To come back to TV programs - 1 person (6.2%), and the remaining 12 people (75%) did not write any wishes.
The heterogeneity of the Uighur community (rural and urban residents, indigenous people and migrants, densely and dispersedly living, ethnically organized and being distanced from the national idea, living in the border zones and large cities) creates different patterns of behavior, interaction with the state and the indigenous ethnos.
Uighurs is one of the most ancient Turkic-speaking peoples. They were engaged not only in the cultivation of grain and melons, but also in smithery and jewelry-making. They were also called "taranchi" since their skills to cultivate land were famous.
Together with the Dungans, the Uighurs first settled in the territory of Kazakhstan in the 1860s and 1880s, after the suppression of the Uighur rebellion in China. Around the same time, some of the Kazakhs of the Semirechye migrated to the Uighur lands of Eastern Turkestan after their uprising had been suppressed in 1916.
Mass migration of Uighurs in the Semirechye
In the middle of the XVIII century, the Chinese army defeated Dzungaria, then conquered East Turkestan, and reached Kuldja. The Chinese army almost completely exterminated the Djungar, sparing only a small number of the Dungan Muslims. The Chinese realized that they would not be able to provide their army with food, and, therefore, all Uighurs were forcibly evicted from the cities of Kashkar, Aksu, Turfan, Zharkent. The Uighurs together with the Dungans in 1864 raised an uprising and gained victory. The Uighur Sultanate of Taranchi was founded. This Sultanate began to emerge as power in the Semirechye. To put an end to this, the Governor-General of the Semirechye region, G. Kolpakovsky, in 1871, went on a military campaign against Kuldza and seized it. Thus, Kuldza entered the Semirechye as an uyezd. When the leaders of China and Russia met in St. Petersburg in 1881, and according to the negotiated agreement, Kuldza again was to be ceded to China. The agreement had a special clause that the people had to decide for themselves which country they want to belong to.
Under the treaty of 1881, Uighurs and Dungans voluntarily moved to the Semirechye. They settled in the Zharkent district on the banks of the Osek and Charyn rivers, in the Vernensky district - in the villages of Chilik, Talgar. Some families moved to the city of Verny. Their descendants still live in these settlements. The settlers made up the five volosts - Zharkent, Ketmen, Aksu-Charyn (now Almaty oblast, Uighur district), Malybaevskaya and Karasu (now Enbekshikazakhsky district).
According to the land use law system established in 1882 by the Semirechye regional government, 10 dessiatinas of land were carved out for each male migrant. However, due to the fact that in the area all the best lands had been granted to the Cossacks, the Uighurs and Dungans got only 4-5 acres of the land. And these lands were not suitable for farming. And the Uighurs had to pay taxes starting from 1892. The Uighurs and Dungans, who lived in wintering outlands and in towns, organized communities with their administration and mosque. Although the land was distributed among individual farms, formally it was in common use. The rule of allocating a plot of land to each family according to the number of males was a common practice. However, very often, bais and well-to-do proprietors had unborn babies registered as males. Hence, bais got hold of the best lands adjoining rivers and canals. Barren lands, those remote from the waterways were allotted to the poor. The poor farmers would complain to the authorities about the outrage of the rich, but no one would attend to their pleas and tried to help.
The impoverished settlers hardly could on their own, cultivate such plots. Then the rich rented their plots, and the lawful plot-owners were employed as farmhands. So the land gradually passed into the hands of the leaseholders. The Uighurs and Dungans deprived of their land flowed to towns to find work.
Number of Uighurs
In the Soviet time, the number of Uighurs in the country was steadily on the increase. In the time of the open borders regimes between the USSR and the PRC in the 1960s and 1970s, two new waves of Uighur settlers arrived in the Kazakh SSR, and settled mainly in the villages and district centers of the Almaty and Taldykurgan regions. The number of Uighurs in the Republic grew rapidly. According to the 1989 census, 180 thousand Uighurs resided in the Republic (1.1% of the Republic's population). The Uighurs accounted for 7.8% of the population of the Almaty region in its present borders and 3.5% of the population of Almaty. According to the 1999 census, their number reached 210 thousand (1.4% of the population), while in the Uighur district of Almaty region the majority of the population (56%) were Uighurs. In the Almaty region, the share of Uighurs rose to 9%, in Alma-Ata reached 5.8%.
The census of Kazakhstan in 2009 had on 01.01.2010 record 227,000 Uighurs, which is 1.39% of the population of the whole country. A rather high natural increase is maintained, the rural population prevails, although the migration of Uighurs to the regional towns has risen.
The Uighurs of Kazakhstan, as a rule, are trilingual, they are proficient in Russian and Kazakh languages. Since the Soviet time in the Republic there has been a network of Uighur schools. In 2012, 14 schools of the Republic were exclusively Uighur-speaking. In addition, 4076 Uighur children who had their training in other languages rather than Uighur, studied the Uighur language either as an optional subject or as a subject under educational programs. The Uyghur newspaper “Uyur Avazi” is in a current publication.
Results of survey all over Kazakhstan
The survey under the international project showed that only few have reliable information about their family history, that is, they are hardly aware of where and when their ancestors were settled in Kazakhstan. Therefore, the majority of respondents consider themselves to be indigenous residents of Kazakhstan. Out of 187 people of the Uighur respondents while answering the question "Was your family deported to Kazakhstan?" 100 (53.4%) said - no, 23 (12.5%) - yes, 64 (34.2%) produced no answer, so, no data available.
The sovereignty of Kazakhstan led to a dramatic change in the ethno-demographic situation in the country. Migration of the population from Kazakhstan to Russia and European countries reduced the country's population by 9.1%. Over the years of sovereignty, the absolute number of the peoples of Kazakhstan has noticeably declined. Only Uzbeks and Uighurs have retained their share in the population.
However, only Uzbeks and Uighurs increased their numbers due to natural population growth, while all other peoples grew in numbers mainly due to migration growth. The distribution of the peoples of Kazakhstan on a vast territory urging an interpersonal communication, and interaction with representatives of other cultures and religions, has enriched the mechanisms of poly-ethnic communication, creating new mutually beneficial forms of intercultural and interethnic communication. All this was an important prerequisite for the modern Kazakhstani culture as becoming one of the most effective in terms of ensuring the effective interpersonal and interethnic interaction and communication between people.
The international research project "Interaction of the Turkic languages and cultures in post-Soviet Kazakhstan" assisted by the Uighur Ethno-Cultural Associations, organized meetings with some representatives of the Uighur ethnos and carried out the survey. All the respondents are aware of the importance of national identity, that is, the importance of respecting national traditions, religion and cuisine. Almost all people respondents believe that whether an ethnic group live in the same territory or not, does not matter. The study was carried out by using interviewing, filling out and analyzing questionnaires.
Ethnicity: 173 people interviewees - Uighur respondents.
Ethnic self-identity: Most of the representatives of the Uighur ethnos (out of 187 respondents) identify themselves as Uighurs as to the passport nationality identification, 178 of them (94.7%) are Uighurs; 3 (1.6%) are registered as Uzbeks; 6 (3.2%) - no data available.
As to marriage, both male and female Uighurs marry predominantly their ethnic counterparts, yet interethnic cases also an occurrence. Survey analysis shows the following figures:
Father's nationality: 177 people (94.7%) - Uighurs; 3 (1.6%) are Uzbeks; 1 (0.5%) is another nationality, and in 6 (3.2%) no data available. As the paternal side survey suggests, an international representation among Uighurs is only accidental, merely 2 nationalities, not to say of the Uighurs.
As to the national identity, the mothers of the respondents are of five nationalities: 61 people (32.6%) - Uighurs; 34 (18.2%) are Kazakhs; 13 (7%) are Uzbeks; 6 (3.2%) are Russians; 1 (0.5%) - another nationality; 53 (28.3%) - no data available.
Thus, in the Uighur mixed families, the father dominates the family, so the orientation is on the father. In ethnic self-identification, the dominant marker, regardless of ethnos, is the paternal line (Uighur), the child in the family is identified with the father's ethnos. Hence it can be stated that at present in Kazakhstan, the shaping of awareness, culture, language in Uighurs is more influenced by the father rather than the mother.
In addition, in mixed families, male Uighurs, as well as women, can marry representatives of other ethnic groups. At the same time, male Uighurs prefer to marry Uighurs in most cases, and female Uighurs prefer to marry Uighur, thus preserving ethnic culture, traditions, mentality.
In the second generation, when one of the spouses was not of Uighur nationality, the following data were found out: 63 (37.7%) children were recorded as Uighurs;
Kazakhs - 7 children (3.7%),
Uzbeks - 6 children (3.2%),
Turkish 1 child (0.6%) and 62 (33.2%) - there is no data.
Most of all interviewees in the survey believe it is important to know their native language, but regret that with the passing away of the older generation, the knowledge of the native language is on the decline. Only the older generation knows the mother tongue very well, middle-aged generation has a fair command of spoken language; unfortunately, the younger generation can employ combination of languages, such as Russian and Uighur, Kazakh, Russian and Uighur, Russian and Kazakh languages. The survey identifies the following:
The survey data on the language spoken in the family with school age children:
27 (14.4%) - only in the Uighur language;
43 (23%) - only in Russian;
43 (23%) - in Russian and Uighur language;
2 (1.1%) - in Russian and Uzbek;
1 (0.5%) - in Russian and Turkish;
4 (2.1%) - in the Kazakh and Uighur languages;
22 (11.8%) - in the Kazakh, Russian and Uighur languages;
13 (7%) - in Kazakh and Russian;
14 (7.5%) - only in the Kazakh language,
9 (4.8%) - no data available.
The survey statistics on the language spoken in the family among adults:
36 (19.3%) - only in the Uighur language;
38 (20.3%) - only in Russian;
46 (24.6%) - in Russian and Uighur language;
1 (0.5%) - in Russian and Turkish;
2 (1.1%) - in Russian and Uzbek;
12 (6.4%) - in the Kazakh language;
12 (6.4%) - in the Kazakh and Uighur languages;
20 (10.7%) - in the Kazakh, Russian and Uighur languages;
10 (5.3%) - in Kazakh and Russian;
1 (0.5%) - only in Uzbek,
3 (1.6%) - no data available.
The survey statistics on language spoken by Uighurs in communicating with people of other nationalities:
75 (40.1%) - only in Russian;
69 (36.9%) - in Kazakh and Russian;
3 (1.6%) - in Russian and Uzbek;
5 (2.7%) - in the Kazakh, Russian and Uighur languages;
6 (3.2%) - only in Kazakh, 1 (0.5%) in Kazakh and Uighur and Kazakh and Uzbek;
20 (10.7%) - no data available.
The analysis of the language selection showed that "linguistic factor" for Uighurs identifies the Russian language as prevailing for communicating with other nationalities. Uighurs speak the state language perfectly, or are fluent enough, or they can speak and understand spoken Kazakh.
Most of the respondents do not share the facts of infringement of their rights on the basis of language. It can be accounted for that the language, sometimes called New Uighur, refers to the Turkic family of languages. A number of problems of the Uighur diaspora refer to education in the Uighur language and the preservation of the cultural heritage:
1) official permission to pupils of Uighur schools to take UNT in district schools with the right to take it in Kazakh/Russian;
2) a shortage of textbooks for Uighur schools;
3) closing of the teacher training department for Uighur schools in KazNPU named after Abay; Today, primary school teachers for Uighur schools are only trained in a college in Jarkent;
4) a sharp decline in the representation of Uighurs in government and local government;
In reference to the foregoing, the survey shows the following statistical data:
53 people (28.2%) speak freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian;
In public transport, at a doctor's, in a notary office they use:
77 people (41.2%) - Russian;
74 people (39.6%) - Kazakh and Russian;
20 people (10.7%) - the Kazakh language.
45 people (24.1%) - read freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian languages;
32 people (17.1%) - write freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian;
36 people (19.3%) - understand freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian languages;
33 people (17.6%) read books, newspapers, magazines and ads freely in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian languages (whereas they prefer 82 (43.9%) in Russian,
27 (11.2%) in Kazakh and Russian, 18 (9.6%) in Russian and Uighur);
27 people (14.4%) - they are more likely to listen to lectures, talks, reports, TV shows and radio programs in Uighur, Kazakh and Russian languages
28 people (15%) - they can listen to concerts, watch performances in Uzbek, Kazakh and Russian languages (whereas they prefer 73 (39%) in Russian, 21 (11.2%) in Kazakh and Russian, 24 12.8%) in Russian and Uighur);
28 people (15%) answered that they did not need the films in Kazakh and Russian to be interpreted in their native language, and 7 people (3.7%) answered yes.
But despite the inadequate knowledge of the native language, all respondents consider themselves to be full-fledged representatives of their nationality. In respect to their personal identification, the representatives of the Uighur ethnos define themselves as the community with their specific ethnic identity and religion (157 of the respondents (83.9%) admit they are Muslims). The ancestors of the Uighurs were adherents of shamanism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and Buddhism. From the Х to the ХVІ centuries Islam gradually superseded these beliefs. With the early Islam gaining ground, the Uighurs professed Sufism, today most of the population are Sunnis.
The 30 respondents from the Uighurs being asked of what their main concerns in respect to interethnic relations were, answered as follows:
- sometimes clashes with Kazakhs, probably, because of chauvinism - 4 people (13.3%);
- 1 person (3.3%) – a clash with Azerbaijanis;
- I can hardly answer the question - 2 people (6.6%).
- No answer, whatever - 23 people (76.6%);
Thus, the Kazakhstani Uighurs predominantly believe that there is no systemic tension between Kazakhs and other ethnic groups residing in Kazakhstan.
The Uighurs have for a long time been farming on the irrigated lands. Also, they bred and traded in livestock. They did not specialize in cattle breeding, and used livestock mainly as draught power in their households. They bred horses, cows, sometimes - sheep and goats. The staple life-sustaining production for the Uighurs was grain farming.
Wheat was mostly preferred to be cultivated among other cereals, followed by barley, millet, oats, rice; crops for the production of vegetable oils: mustard, poppy, flax. Uighurs were engaged in the cultivation of fruit crops: vegetables, cucumbers, potatoes, peas, onions, garlic, carrots, red pepper and various greens. They also cultivated silkworm cocoons, cotton, supplied the population with vegetable oil. The Dungans grew poppies to produce opium for medicinal purposes. They also grew tobacco, successfully trading it and its derivatives, in particular, nasybai. Today, the occupational patterns of Uighurs are changed. The survey data show that:
20 people (10.8%) are teachers;
20 people (10.7%) are workers;
18 people (9.6%) - employees in the service sector;
20 people (10.7%) are civil servants;
10 people (5.3%) are unemployed;
2 people (0.5%) are entrepreneurs;
30 (17.6%) other occupations (restaurant business, trade, etc.).
78.9% respondents (45 people) as to oral folklore admitted they knew and sometimes used proverbs and sayings. Older people (50 years old) remember the fairy tales and myths that their grandmothers told them (Alpamish, Takhir wa Zukhra, Farhad wa Shirin, Ahmadjan Kasimi, Silly Padishah, Yalmauz, Malik and Roykhon, Chura Botir, Bilal-Nazim, Nazuzum, Perizat, Rabia-Saydan, Leyli-Majnun, Sadir Palvan, Gani Batur, Yusuf wa Zuleikho, legends about Nasreddin Apendi, poems, etc.), and 21.1% (12 respondents) of the younger generation answered that they did not know. People of the middle-age generation, whose childhood and youth fell to the Soviet period – the 70-90-ies, know Kazakh literature poorly; the representatives of the younger generation are more or less familiar with the Kazakh literature. At present, the respondents with higher education degrees go back to the knowledge of oral folk art, as well as native literature through the access to new technologies (the Internet), as well as participating in activities held in ethno-cultural national centers.
The quality of the textbooks in Kazakh, Russian and English languages was evaluated only by the respondents with higher education degrees, mostly textbooks in Kazakh and Russian were rated as "satisfactory". The quality of the English textbooks was rated as "good".
The results of the survey in the city of Taraz, Zhambyl region (sporadic residence areas of Uighurs)
Interviewing the representatives of the Uygur ethnos in Taraz city of Zhambyl region in August 2015 was also carried out.
According to the Mahmut Kashgari Ethno-Cultural Association of Uighurs of the Zhambyl Region, it is (the area) is populated by 3,000 ethnic Uighurs, most of whom, 1500 people, live in Chu, about 1,000 residents live in Taraz, the rest are distributed in the districts of the region. According to the Chairman of the Association, Mahabat Abdrakhmanovna Turdiyeva, the number does not include Uighurs (mostly women) who are in mixed marriages, and people who due to some reasons have changed their nationality. The average age of representatives of the Uighur ethnos in the Zhambyl region is approximately 40-50 years, the elderly people number only some 200 people.
With the assistance of the Uighur Ethno-Cultural Association, some meetings were held with representatives of the Uighur ethnos to conduct interviews. Twenty interviews were organized. Among the respondents there were representatives with postgraduate education (candidates of sciences) - 2 people, with a higher education degree - 9, and with secondary and secondary special degrees- 9 people. The age of the respondents: the older generation (70 years and above) -1 person (74 years), the middle age generation (40-60 years, age 46 years) - 13 people, the younger generation (20-40, 5) - 6 people. One interview took about 40 minutes – 60 minutes. All respondents are urban or suburban residents (Dunganovka village). The analysis of the interviews showed that everyone knows the spoken native language (18 people - 90%), some are fluent in the Kazakh language (15 people - 75%), and all are fluent in Russian.
The interviewees’ parents were forced to settle in Kazakhstan. Only one respondent (a qualified doctor, has a postgraduate education) was deported in the early 20th century, according to him not his, but his grandfather was, and migration was effected by a search of a better life, after some clashes between the Uighurs and the Chinese. According to the respondents, their families were not deported to Kazakhstan. The resettlement occurred mainly in the late 50's and early 60's due to the famine in China, the so-called "black years". The resettlement occurred more often from Kashkar, less often from Suidun and Artush. Initially, the resettlement occurred in the Taldykurgan region (now Almaty), Panfilov district (Avat village, Zharkent village, Shonzha village).
Representatives of the Uighur ethnos, who are members of the Ethno-Cultural Association, support national traditions, honor their native language, specimens of folk art in their native language. In addition, the interviews showed that the respondents are grateful to live in Kazakhstan, have close ties, sometimes relations, with representatives of other ethnic groups living in Kazakhstan. Almost all respondents believe that marriage with representatives of another religion is unacceptable. Only one respondent has a spouse - Ukrainian.
All respondents consider themselves to be indigenous residents of Kazakhstan, they generally consider it important to know their native language, but regretfully admit that with the departure of the older generation, the knowledge of the native language is on the decline. Only the older generation knows the mother tongue well, a good spoken language is used by middle age generation; unfortunately, the younger generation does not use the Uighur language. But despite the inadequate mastery of the native language, everyone considers himself\herself to be a full-fledged representative of his/her nationality. All without exception, respondents are aware of the importance of national identity, that is, the importance of respecting national traditions, religion and cuisine. Almost all people consider it not that important for an ethnic group to live in the same territory.
Today, there are no Uighur schools in the city of Taraz, the Uighur language as a subject in educational institutions is not on the curricula. Once, the Uighur language was taught as an optional at the Uighur Ethno-Cultural Association of the Zhambyl Region, but at present, the elective course does not operate due to the lack of material incentives for teachers. All respondents understand that the use and study of the mother tongue in nurseries and kindergartens is necessary, but they also realize that because of the small number of representatives of the Uighur ethnos in the city of Taraz, there is no such possibility. It is believed that it is now better to teach children in Kazakh, Russian, and if possible, in English. As to the quality of textbooks in the native language, the respondents could not express their opinion because of unavailability and not using of such. Only the respondents with higher education degrees evaluated the quality of the textbooks in Kazakh, Russian and English languages, mostly textbooks on Kazakh and Russian were rated as "satisfactory". The quality of the English textbooks was rated as "good". Everybody knows and refers to the fact that there are Uighur schools in Almaty, Almaty broadcasts in Uighur language, and there are also radio broadcasts. Of all the respondents, only one person (Ph.D., teacher) uses the Internet, writes SMS in his native language, knows Uighur poets and writers, the titles and contents of their works. During the survey, 10% of the respondents expressed the desire to further develop the national culture and spoke about the necessity to restart broadcasting channel (originally known as Alatau) in the Uighur language.
The analysis of the interviews showed that the representatives of the Uighur ethnos do not have conflicts with representatives of other ethnic groups. All respondents consider Kazakhstan their homeland; they think that the situation has improved considerably since the times of the USSR. In Kazakhstan their rights are not violated and there are all opportunities for observing national traditions, and not knowing the Kazakh language does not affect career growth. The ANC’s role in preserving the national identity is important.
The main problem in developing of the present study is some distrust of the respondents to the study and a small number of representatives of the Uighur ethnos living in Taraz and Zhambyl Oblast.
To the survey’s final question: “What do you want to add to what you have stated? Perhaps, do you have any wishes regarding the publication of books and newspapers in your native language, cultural and educational work and schooling? "Some respondents (out of 16 total) wrote the following:
- At the moment - it is necessary to translate the best works into Russian and to advertise them and the authors. Reduce the number of Russian channels, and increase entertainment and cognitive programs in Russian, propagandizing Kazakhstanis, etc. - 1 person (6.2%);
- With regard to the publication of books and newspapers, there are already such books (Uigur Avazi, Irada magazine, Uygur Radio, etc.), I would like to see more Uygur concerts and events on local channels - 1 person (6.2%).
- Some more interest clubs to study the native language - 1 person (6.2%).
- I would like more concerts and centers to learn more about the language, culture and way of life of our people - 1 person (6.2%).
- I would like to watch the programs in my native language - 1 person (6.2%).
- To make the Turks become one nation - 2 people (12.5%).
- To come back to TV programs - 1 person (6.2%), and the remaining 12 people (75%) did not write any wishes.
The heterogeneity of the Uighur community (rural and urban residents, indigenous people and migrants, densely and dispersedly living, ethnically organized and being distanced from the national idea, living in the border zones and large cities) creates different patterns of behavior, interaction with the state and the indigenous ethnos.
Murtazayeva B.A.
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